Challenges of the Suburban Firepocalypse

There is an old saying, which holds that if the only tool you have in your toolbox is a hammer, then everything looks like a nail. If you are a master craftsman structural fire officer, you may or may not have the wildland firefighting tools that you need for an interface fire. As such, it’s important to consider how your mindset needs to shift when faced with a wildland/urban interface fire.

See the difference

When you are dispatched to a wildland fire, the address given is something like this: “Five miles up the Cedar Canyon Road.” An interface fire in the beginning stages will more likely be dispatched as something like, “456 Mountain View Road.”

When you arrive at the Cedar Canyon fire, wildland firefighting rules of engagement apply. You assess the weather, terrain and fuels, find safe zones and escape routes, post lookouts and then conduct a safety briefing. Only then is the fire attacked. When you arrive at the Mountain View fire, you are met with an anxious customer who sees the fire moving toward her house. Do you take the same precautions before engagement? If not, why not? It is, after all, a wildland fire. If the house were not there, would you still want to be there or are you standing right in the path of the fire? 

Extreme fire behavior

In the 15 years, some extreme fire behavior has led to devastating situations around the world. It seems that fires that overwhelm any attempt to fight them are not isolated events anymore. Rather, they appear to be the new normal.

In 2003, a wildland fire spawned an F3 fire tornado with sustained winds of 160 mph traveled 15 miles (25 km) from the bush into the suburbs of Canberra, Australia. The fire tornado ripped off roofs, tossed vehicles and trees around like toys, and then set them on fire.

In 2009, the “Black Saturday Fire” in Victoria, Australia, killed 173 people and destroyed the town of Marysville in a matter of hours. Flame heights reached that of a 30-story building (100 meters), and flame temperatures were estimated at 3,600 degrees F (2,000 degrees C). People were killed by radiant heat at a distance of 1,300 feet (400 meters).

In September 2011, nearly 2,000 homes were burned when a fire raced through Bastrop County, TX. Because of some very aggressive fire behavior, Texas firefighters are now using an “Attack from the Black” strategy. No longer do they get out in front of grass fires. They attack from the burned side so that if the wind shifts, the fire cannot turn on them.

The 2015 wildfire season included destructive fires in California and Washington. In August, the Twisp River fire in Central Washington killed three firefighters and critically burned a fourth when the wind shifted during the initial attack.

Lake County in Northern California was hit particularly hard, with five major interface fires by mid-September. Each fire was more destructive than the one before. Veteran firefighters spoke of “tentacles of fire going in all directions” during the Rocky fire and “unprecedented rates of spread” with the Valley Fire. The Valley Fire started on a Saturday afternoon, and by Sunday morning covered 40,000 acres. Four firefighters suffered serious burns, again during the initial attack.

Based on what has been described by firefighters and other witnesses, the only word that seems to sum up this extreme fire behavior is firepocalypse. Considering these fire behavior issues, I have compiled a list of 10 factors to consider when faced with these types of challenges.

#1 Priority is safety

This cannot be overemphasized. Since 1990, an average of 18 firefighters a year have died while working on wildland fires. Some died of heart attacks, some from vehicle and aircraft accidents, and some from burnover. With the number, size and intensity of wildland fires growing every year due to global climate change and an ever-increasing number of homes being built in wildland areas, the danger is only going to increase.

We need to look at how we fight these fires again. Most burnovers happened between 1400 and 1630 hrs. Take time at 1400 to reevaluate what you are doing and what you know. You may decide to sideline your crew for safety reasons. If your experience is with structural fires, think about the Granite Mountain Hotshots who were killed during the Yarnell Hill Fire in Arizona. If these firefighters—who had more wildland fire experience than any structural firefighter will accumulate in a lifetime—can be caught in a burnover, what does that tell you? 

2-person team

Everyone needs to have a partner. This should include lookouts. Who will lookout for the lookout? The other lookout. Even members who often work alone can use a partner. The incident commander (IC) or division supervisor needs an aide to monitor radio traffic on multiple frequencies. Even a small fire will involve dispatch, forestry and tactical frequencies. There are maps that need updating. Have you ever thought about a rapid-intervention team in an interface fire? The RIT could brush out escape routes, cut down danger trees and lay protective hoselines along the escape routes. Their function would be same as in a structure fire—assist injured, disorientated and trapped firefighters. They should be equipped with air packs and a thermal imager to find firefighters who are lost in dense smoke when the wind shifts. SCBAs not only protect the user from smoke and superheated air, but they also are the only way to work in an oxygen-deficient atmosphere that can accompany a blowup. Three things impact firefighters who are killed or injured in burnovers: 1) thermal assault, 2) superheated air and 3) oxygen deficiency. Why not use your SCBA to save yourself and others?

3 home triage categories

Triage makes some people nervous because it involves making decisions that have a big impact on other people. At the same time, it is apparent that these decisions need to be made.

Category 1 is a home that will likely survive without intervention. Category 2 will benefit from intervention and Category 3 includes homes that are either too dangerous to defend or are not likely to survive in any event. In many ways, the homeowners have already made the decision for you through their previous choices—where they located the house on the property, how much defensible space they provided, the type of building materials they used, etc.

When it comes time to conducting triage, it makes the most sense to send a team of two in a vehicle to make the assessment. They are less likely to be caught in access problems, and they don't create the expectation of action that accompanies the arrival of an engine.

Home triage also gives you an opportunity during the offseason to educate the public about the realities of interface fires. If properly presented, it can spur them to take action to make it more likely that their home will be a survivor. Firewise in the United States and Firesmart in Canada are good sources of information.

4 keys to surviving being overrun

Structural firefighters are not usually issued fire shelters, but they do have some equipment and resources not available to wildland firefighters. The two big items are structural PPE and SCBAs. With this in mind, there are four things you can do if you are about to be overrun by a wildland fire:

1. Break in: Houses take much more heat to ignite then it does to kill or injure a firefighter. Even if the house burns, you can stay inside long enough for the flame front to pass. Structural firefighters are used to being inside burning houses.
2. Break out: “Step into the black” is easier said then done if a wall of fire is approaching. Find the place in the brush that has the least fuel and decrease it further by using your chain saws to cut brush. A “V” pattern will give you the most bang for the buck. Make the V as wide and deep as time will allow. Put on your structural PPE, including SCBA, which will protect your airway from super-heated air. Hopefully, you have water in reserve for such an emergency. When the flame front hits the point of the V, move in with one, or better yet, two, hoselines. Force your way though, into the black. Drop the hoselines and keep walking when you reach the maximum length. This is a variation of a military tactic of the same name.
3. Burn out: This a classic wildland defensive tactic. Burn out the area around you to enlarge a natural or firefighter-made fuel break.
4. Burn up and out: Also known as an escape fire, this was first used by Foreman Wagner Dodge during the Mann Gulch Fire in 1949. The fire was coming up from below in steep terrain. Dodge stopped to light a fire. His crew had no idea what he was doing and/or thought he was nuts. His idea was that the fire would move up the hill and quickly create a black safety zone. Dodge survived, but 13 members of his crew did not. This tactic only works in grasses or other light fuels.

5 command functions

When you studied incident command, there were functions that you rarely used in a structural fire. Command and Operations were always used, but Planning, Logistics and Finance become more important in an interface fire. Similarly, the functions within Command—PIO, liaison, incident safety officer—all are used. Generally, it is unnecessary to appoint an operations officer during a structure fire, but it is usually a good idea with an interface fire. You should appoint multiple incident safety officers if you are operating in an area where your forces are spread out. As a structural fire officer or chief, you are used to being the IC. If possible, let the state, federal or provincial wildland agency take command. They generally have deeper pockets and better access to resources. Besides, you will have your hands full as a division supervisor.

6 size-up and assessment factors

Your initial size-up and ongoing assessments needs to include focus on the following (aka the Big Six):

1. Weather
2. Terrain
3. Fuels
4. Access
5. Escape routes
6. Safety zones

Weather should include both the current and forecasted weather, particularly any sudden changes like a cold front passing. These factors need to be communicated to everyone on the fireline as well as up the chain of command. Many fire radios have the weather channel, which you can monitor for updates. Stay out of any terrain that could trap you even if the fire is not close. An ember or lightning could start a new fire and not give your crew enough time to escape.

7 support functions

You will likely need seven support functions:

1. Rehab: Heat stress kills firefighters. One hour of work should be followed by 15 minutes of rest in rehab. Hydration is important as well as monitoring vitals. Often it seems that there is no time for rehab, but remember, you are in this fight for the long haul and you need to pace yourself. Another way to give relief to crewmembers is to rotate jobs like lookouts or RIT. Overall, a 2:1 work/rest ratio is recommended.
2. Food and drink: They say that an army travels on its stomach. The same is true of firefighters. Take care of your troops by feeding them lots of good food. This may occur at a camp or your may have to send out for food. Don't forget toilets. A porta-potty is just a phone call away.
3. Equipment: If this is still a small fire, you may be in charge of getting equipment. A dozer can do the work of many firefighters, freeing them to do other work.
4. Delivery: Food, small tools and fuel will need to be delivered. Many fire departments have pickups, vans or other vehicles that can be used for this purpose.
5. Liaison: You will want to be in communication with law enforcement, Red Cross, Animal Control and other agencies.
6. Outside expertise: Very likely, you will be confronted by problems outside your area of competency. Bring in the experts. Before working in a treed area, a danger tree assessment needs to be done. It is a good idea to have members of your fire department to have this training, so that you don't have to wait.
7. Air support: Call for it early.

8 interface tactics

Here are eight tactics that you can use after considering the Big Six. These are borrowed from Cal Fire.

1. Check and Go: Fire is coming and all you can do is check for occupants and leave.
2. Prep and Go: As the name suggests, you have some time to do some mitigation before you leave.
3. Prep and Defend: If conditions allow, and you have good access, escape routes and safety zones, defend the home. Always be prepared to leave if conditions change.
4. Fire Front Following: This is a relatively safe and very effective tactic. You are coming from a safety zone through the black to put out fires left by the passage of the fire front. You need to stay mobile, conserve water and only attack fires that you can extinguish quickly.
5. Bump and Run: You are putting out spot fires ahead of the main fire. The need to stay mobile is even more critical because of the dynamic nature of the situation.
6. Anchor and Hold: This tactic requires a good fixed water source and lots of personnel. You may be steering the fire to a river or other firebreak.
7. Connect the Dots: You have multiple areas where you have the fire under control and you build lines between them to connect them. This is a good situation; you are winning.
8. Tactical Patrol: 50 to 80 percent of home losses in interface fires are attributed to smoldering fires that if detected and extinguished in time would have saved the home. Crews need to do these patrols on foot and again need to conserve water. Use available water sources, conserve your onboard water and stay mobile.

9 situations that tell you it's time to leave

• You can't see the fire and are not in communication with a lookout who has no other job except to watch the fire.
• The fire is spotting behind you.
• The weather, particularly the wind, is erratic.
• Smoke conditions limit visibility to the extent that they would slow you down if you needed to reach a safety zone.
• What you are doing has little or no strategic value.
• You do not have enough water to handle the situation and still have reserves left for emergencies.
• You find yourself in a situation that you would not put yourself in except for the home you are defending. The Octagon House in the Esperanza Fire comes to mind.
• The wildland pros are leaving. “If you see me running, try to keep up.”
• The hair on the back of your neck stands up or you have a “bad feeling” about the situation. Animals know when to leave. You have the same instincts. Trust your gut.

10 standing orders

Developed by the US forest service in 1957, the 10 standing orders are still are valid today.

1. Keep informed on fire weather conditions and forecasts.
2. Know what your fire is doing at all times.
3. Base all actions on current and expected behavior of the fire.
4. Identify escape routes and safety zones and make them known.
5. Post lookouts when there is possible danger.
6. Be alert. Keep calm. Think clearly. Act decisively.
7. Maintain prompt communications with your forces, your supervisor, and adjoining forces.
8. Give clear instructions and ensure they are understood.
9. Maintain control of your forces at all times.
10. Fight fire aggressively, having provided for safety first.

Your strategic priorities are the same as they are at any other incident.

• Life safety
• Incident stabilization
• Property conservation

Final thought

One thing that came out of the Yarnell Hill Fire tragedy is the need for all crews to be easily located in case of emergency. A handheld GPS can give you latitude and longitude coordinates, which can pinpoint your location for RIT or aircraft overhead. Make it easy for the rescuers to help you.

Stay safe!

DAN PIPPIN is the fire chief (ret.) of the Cortes Island Fire Rescue in Cortes Island, British Columbia, Canada.